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An indigenous rebellion has been taking place sporadically for more than ten years in the Casamance Province of Senegal. Intermittent guerrilla activity in the region has depended upon political and economic variables, the availability of arms, regional support and movement cohesion. The spring of 1993 was especially violent; presidential and legislative elections which were held throughout the country shaped the context in which the violence unfolded.
Senegal, which was one of the first West African colonies to be seized by France in the late 19th century, has a population of 7 million, 2 million in the capital city of Dakar alone. More than 35 percent of the population is Wolof (the most numerous indigenous people, who are native to the northern coastal area); the Wolof language along with French is understood throughout the country, especially in Dakar.
Despite the diversity that comes with the presence of eight distinct peoples within the state (which is presumed to represent a unitary society), there is apparently a generally high degree of cultural homogeneity, due to two major factors in addition to language. First, 80 percent of all Senegalese follow the Islamic faith, and mixed marriages are common, especially between Christians and Muslims. Second, and probably more important, the assimilationism introduced as colonial policy by the French was reiterated as state policy by Leopold Senghor after independence, and it continues as policy today under the regime of Abdou Diouf. Assimilation, however, was never completed as a process, and it may never be, given the tenacity with which indigenous peoples maintain their identities.
Senegal almost completely encloses another independent state, Gambia, through which flows the Gambia River. Gambia was colonized by England, rather than France, and as a result English is the predominant language of the modern independent state. Gambia is largely a lush and fertile valley. North of Gambia, the landscape of Senegal is mostly a vast savannah which is threatened with desertification. Except for the Senegal River valley, along the northern frontier, the land is not suitable for agricultural enterprise.
On the other hand, the Casamance Province, south of Gambia, is forested and fertile, enjoying two-to-three times the rainfall of the north. It is a tropical land with palm trees, swamps and lush vegetation (an ideal area for guerrilla activity). The Casamance was first invaded and influenced by Portuguese, rather than the French or English, during the early days of the slave trade in the 15th century. Later, in the 17th and 18th centuries, those three European powers competed fiercely for mercantilist hegemony, and each secured its own regional sources of human chattel. In the late 19th century the French pushed the Portuguese further south into Guinea-Bissau and then colonized the Casamance Province.
The Casamance is home to several peoples, including the Diola (Jola), Mandinka, Soninke, Serer, Wolof, Fulbe, Toucouleur, and Bambara. The Diolas represent some 60% of the total Casamance population of 800,000. As religion is concerned, Diolas practice Christianity and/or "animism" (indigenous spiritualism), which makes them distinct in a country dominated by Islam, the influence of which Diolas have traditionally resisted. Likewise, the Diolas have resisted French and Wolof domination and influence. In Casamance, the Diola language is widely spoken.
A large proportion of Senegal's tourist industry is located in the Casamance. The beaches are vast and beautiful, and there is a Club Med. The rich, fertile land of the region also produces most of Senegal's food products for both domestic consumption and for export. The main crop and export is peanuts. Most local agricultural and tourist activities are controlled from Dakar, and there is a net flow of resources and wealth out of the region. The Casamançais are in a situation which could be considered "internal colonialism;" many people feel that their homeland is economically exploited and conquered, rather than integrated, by the state.
Separatist sentiments in the Casamance have been in the air for a long time; they are due in part to the distinct colonial heritage of the region, and also in part to its continuous resistance against Islam. The separatism is also due in part to political and geographic barriers to consolidation which have remained since colonial days. Although the French replaced the Portuguese in control of the region, the Gambia River and the English colony of Gambia around the river always presented a serious obstacle to unification. The people of the Casamance (especially the Diolas) therefore have been able to retain a certain amount of autonomy in their traditions, family solidarity, and control of the land since colonial days. There was always a will to resist the French colonizers, especially in refusal to pay taxes, and the Diola queen Alinsitowe Diatte was a major symbol of defiance whom the French sent into exile in 1943. The resistance continued after Senegal achieved independence.
The political role of Gambia has added another twist to the situation. Gambia is a long narrow country (about 23 miles wide and 210 miles long) along both sides of the Gambia River, often compared to a nail driven into Senegal's side by colonialists. The linguistic and cultural barriers which resulted from geography and the distinctions of colonial heritage in Gambia produced a corresponding set of political differences. In 1981, when Gambia's President Jawara was faced with the possibility of rebellion and overthrow, Abdou Diouf sent Senegalese troops to restore him in power. That intervention marked the beginning of the "Senegambia Confederation," which was formed with the best intentions of harmonizing production and trade between the two countries. Due to their different ways of managing political affairs, however, the confederation dissolved in 1989.
Fourth World Bulletin • December 1993
Copyright © 1996 by the Fourth World Center
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