This article presents basic characterizations of eight principles of constructivism and how the principles apply to learning and understanding. Using these basic principles as an instructional design model, the authors discuss Problem-Based Learning (PBL) as an instructional methodology that most ideally represents and utilizes the eight principles.

A definition of problem-based learning is needed before the authors' discussion of constructivism and PBL is examined. Problem-based learning is defined by Finkle and Torp (1995) as, "a curriculum development and instructional system that simultaneously develops both problem solving strategies and disciplinary knowledge bases and skills by placing students in the active role of problem solvers confronted with an ill-structured problem that mirrors real-world problems" (p. 1).

The authors characterize the philosophical view of constructivism with three propositions. First, understanding is in our interactions with the environment. Second, cognitive conflict or puzzlement is the stimulus for learning and determines the organization and nature of what is learned. Third, knowledge evolves through social negotiation and through the evaluation of the viability of individual understandings. From these constructivist propositions, the authors derive the following set of eight instructional principles (pp. 32-34).

1. Anchor all learning activities to a larger task or problem.
2. Support the learner in developing ownership for the overall problem or task.
3. Design an authentic task.
4. Design the task and the learning environment to reflect the complexity of the environment the learner should be able to function in at the end of the learning.
5. Give the learner ownership of the process used to develop a solution.
6. Design the learner environment to support and challenge the learner's thinking.
7. Encourage testing ideas against alternative views and alternate contexts.
8. Provide opportunity for, and support reflection on both the content learned and the learning process.

Focusing and commenting on critical design features, the authors illustrate how these constructivist instructional principles can be applied to a PBL environment. These design features include learning goals, problem generation, problem presentation, and the role of the facilitator. From the principles and PBL's critical design features we find that PBL actively engages the learners in authentic tasks, activities, and environments. Learners are the constructors of their own contextualized knowledge. They are expected to think critically and creatively, and to monitor their own understanding. The learners also take part in a team where social negotiation of meaning is an important part of the problem-solving structure.

This article provides a basis for understanding constructivist instructional principles and how they can be successfully incorporated into a problem-based Learning instructional design. The article further illustrates the point that PBL is a superior design over other problem or case based approaches because of its emphasis on authentic tasks, problem solving, contextual learning, and the application of thinking and metacognitive skills.