Distance Learning Annotated Bibliography

In Search of Theoretical and Practical Information on Distance Education
for Distance Learning Teachers:
An Annotated Bibliography

by: Clark J. Nelson
Independent Study, Summer 1996

Introduction

Resources relating to distance education (DE) are abundant. Thinking the resources would be quite limited for a somewhat newly developing educational field, I thought I would develop a comprehensive list of resources from journals, books, and the World Wide Web. I have developed a list, but I would not call it comprehensive. I quickly discovered that the information relating to DE that exists covers a wide range of topics. Some of the major topics in DE resources include: history, theory, and the future of DE; reports of program successes and failures, the technology of DE, implementing DE programs, and learning theories within DE.

Since I am a distance learning teacher, I was not interested in the hordes of information related to why and how distance education works. I was looking primarily for information on learning styles and teaching strategies; practical information for the practitioner who already knows that DE is as good as traditional classroom instruction. It seems there is an abundance of what I would call "newbie" information which discusses technologies of one-way and two-way communication, what DE is and how it works, and specifics of various distance learning programs around the world. Information relating to specifics of interactivity, use of media, and ways to maximize the potential of DE are less abundant. Furthermore, attempting to utilize information that was generated from a different type of DE system than the one being used can be a futile endeavor. For example, I teach in a one-way video, two-way audio distance learning system with no students present at the instructor's site. Information regarding useful practices in a correspondence (e.g. paper materials sent via mail) DE system may be of little or no use for me. The reason for pointing this out is as a word of warning for distance learning instructors and practitioners who have a desire to find relevant information that suits their needs. For those who are conducting research and writing articles I suggest the continued use of extremely detailed titles that include hints as to whether the article is geared toward teachers, learners, or administrators; and inclusion of what type of system the article is based on (one-way video, two-way video, two-way audio, computer-networking only, etc.) where applicable.

The intent of this paper is to present an annotated bibliography of resources I located regarding distance education, with an emphasis on articles that may be of use to distance learning (DL) teachers. Theoretical underpinnings of DE will be discussed, as well as practical implications for practitioners. I began teaching via DL three years ago, though I had no formal training in the field. This research gave me an opportunity to find and study materials that could be a part of a course for the training of DL teachers. This bibliography is by no means exhaustive, but perhaps it will serve as a starting point for teachers who have some experience in DE and are seeking more information. For each article or book, I will cite the source and summarize major points made in the article, and information I think is important and relevant to distance educators.

Articles relating to theory and history of DE

D. Randy Garrison, (1993). Quality and access in distance education: theoretical considerations. In D. Keegan (ed) Theoretical principles of distance education. London & New York: Routledge.

Though the focus here is on adult and higher education, the theories apply to all forms of distance learning. The author asserts that although one of the primary purposes of DE was originally to provide access to education for those with limited access, a focus must be on the quality of the educational experience through increased two-way communication. He states that "the overriding impact on the quality of an educational experience is the provision of sustained discourse between teacher and student" (p. 11). Discussion of behavioral orientations associated with the prepackaging of educational materials leads to an explanation of cognitive constructivism and the assertion that behaviorally oriented instruction is inappropriate for teaching higher-level cognitive strategies. Other important assertions include:

"Students can best create and validate understanding in an interactive environment where concepts are offered, challenged, and acted upon."
"Excessive concern with reaching prescribed goals and managing the setting to shape required behavior will most likely lead to superficial learning outcomes" (p.16).
"Teleconferencing represented a paradigm shift in the quest to provide sustained interaction and ultimately greater control for both teacher and student over the educational transaction at a distance" (p. 18).
"The challenge to distance educators is to design and deliver education that is accessible, but not 'intellectual pabulum' to be swallowed without thought" (p.20).

This chapter provides theoretical underpinnings for and sheds light on the "post-correspondence" era of DE. With the technology to conduct live, interactive video-based DE, we must not confine ourselves to simply addressing accessibility, but also the quality of the education.

Amundsen, Cheryl. (1993). The evolution of theory in distance education. In D. Keegan (ed) Theoretical principles of distance education. London & New York: Routledge.

This chapter covers a theory of transactional distance and learner autonomy. Transactional distance refers to a psychological and communications gap between teacher and student in DE, which can lead to potential misunderstanding. Two variables affect the degree of transactional distance, dialog and structure. Dialog is the extent to which all the participants in DE are able to communicate with one another. Structure refers to how responsive a program is to individuals' needs. The chapter refers to DE theories of Holmberg and Moore, who both feel that learner autonomy is an ideal and goal of DE. Theories of communication and learner control, the reintegration of the teaching and learning acts, and a three-dimensional theory of DE are all discussed. A synthesis of all perspectives is then presented. Based on the proposed framework, the chapter addresses the role of three major components of DE: the teacher, learner, and content.

This chapter presents a thorough overview of DE theories suitable for someone seeking to view these theories side-by-side for comparison. Good general DE theory is to be found here, and it gives a view of the historical context of theories underlying much of DE today.

Keegan, Desmond. (1993). Reintegration of the teaching acts. In D. Keegan (ed) Theoretical principles of distance education. London & New York: Routledge.

"The purpose of this chapter is to provide guidelines for a conceptual and logical analysis of distance education as a prerequisite for theory formulation" (p. 113). In addition to providing guidelines for a conceptual and a logical analysis, he addresses the role of the student and teacher and the communication of content in DE.
Here are some of the important points from this chapter:

"At the culminating stages of education, R. Peters holds, there is little distinction between teacher and taught. They are both participating in the shared experience of exploring a common world" (p. 126).
Cognitive psychology findings undermine three bases on which the fields of DE and educational technology (ET) rest: learning can be forecast, learning is logical, and the design of instruction can be separated from its realization.
DE classes take longer to prepare.
DE "limps" due to the separation in time or space between the teaching and learning acts.

Bates, Tony. (1993). Theory and practice in the use of technology in distance education. In D. Keegan (ed) Theoretical principles of distance education. London & New York: Routledge.

The use of technology in DE is covered in this chapter, and it supports the move in DE away from print-based materials, toward technologies. The author asserts that by "the year 2010, [...] telecommunications-based technologies will have become the primary means of delivery of distance teaching" (p.213). Discussion of technology use in DE ranges from extended classroom teaching (audio recordings of lectures combined with readings) to digital, analogic, and iconic symbol systems. Some important assertions include:

Different symbol systems convey different kinds of information, which is significant for media selection.
The handling of concrete and abstract knowledge differs among forms of media.
TV, print, and computers are best at providing concrete examples.
TV is better than other systems at presenting situations where a variety of possible learner responses are equally acceptable and developing mechanical or procedural skills.
Technology "can provide learning experiences not otherwise available even in a face-to-face teaching situation" (p.220).
Multimedia materials require much more preparation time than relayed lectures, but the trade-off may be in the quality of the materials.
Presentation of one concept through different media may facilitate development of deeper understanding.
Interactivity increases learning effectiveness considerably.
The design of "multi-media distance learning materials which encourage active learning requires considerable instructional as well as programming expertise" (p.230).

Boyd, Gary. (1993). A theory of distance education for the cyberspace era. In D. Keegan (ed) Theoretical principles of distance education. London & New York: Routledge.

One of the proposals in this chapter is that DE, with the existent technology today, has an "opportunity to evolve from being mainly a way of providing access to knowledge and credentials for highly motivated, scattered, or otherwise isolated, students, into the paramount means for building pluralistic geographically extensive networked learning communities of complementary human capabilities, which can work together in mutual appreciation to improve our world" (p.235). Conventional organizational models are inadequate for DE today. Boyd delves into theories of cultural symbiosis and culture and community and their relation to education. He claims that both the behaviorists and the "currently fashionable cognitive psychology movement" (p.241) have problems. The behaviorists had simplistically narrow models of human nature, and the cognitive psychology movement focuses on rational conscious cognition of one individual, excluding kinesthetic and social learning dimensions. He proposes a viable system theory, which I won't detail here. Another important assertion is:

"Since motivation and generalization are so heavily dependent on aesthetics, and since many people do primary thinking in visual or oral/aural or kinesthetic modes, it is important that learning conversations should be enabled by visual and auditory and kinetic means not just by alpha-numeric text" (p.251).

This is a hefty modern chapter which also addresses the existence of various varieties of AVOs (Autopoietic Virtual Organisms) which subsist in peoples' nervous systems (p.250). I would agree with his statement about behaviorism, however, my understanding of cognitive constructivism is that the focus is on a shared construction of knowledge between learners, which often involves kinesthetic activity in addition to discussion. Although I found some of the ideas presented to be useful, some of the language and terminology flew quickly over my head, and that was good, because I felt like I was reading something somewhat futuristic and "non-mainstream." This is an interesting chapter.

Peters, Otto. (1993). Distance education in a post-industrial society. In D. Keegan (ed) Theoretical principles of distance education. London & New York: Routledge.

Peters provides convincing evidence that DE is "the most industrialized form of teaching" (p.221). Naturally, he then addresses the nature of post-industrial society, and what role DE will play in it. Nine character traits of the post-modern self are outlined, including the rejection of delayed gratification, empty routine work, materialistic objectives, self-control, competition, and nature-exploitation. The post-modern self will, however, embrace spontaneity, stimulation, meaningful work, self-expression, and working toward the fulfillment of human values. Four ways in which DE corresponds with post-industrial tendencies include the dislocation from the classroom, self-direction, social interactions among students, and an affinity towards electronic media (p. 227). The dominating goal will be self-realization. "Autonomous groups will become the main constituent of the learning process" (p.232). Methodology that allows for originality, flexibility, and openness will be preferred. Three perspectives of theoretical guidelines for the future discussion of DE models are presented: the Lebenswelt perspective, the ecology perspective, and the concept of instructional design. Lebenswelt refers to a pragmatic perspective which was influential on German adult education in the mid 1960's-70's. The primary focus was on the student's individual identity. At the center of interest was the learner. The ecology perspective includes global learning, self-initiation, and new thinking that relies more on qualitative than quantitative standards. Instructional design revolves around the concept that teaching is an art, as well as a technique. The instructional designer will be aware of unpredictable factors of the learning situation, as well as pragmatic, aesthetic, ethical and moral dimensions.

Pea, Roy D. (1994). Seeing what we build together: distributed multimedia learning environments for transformative communications. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 3,3,285-299.

In everyday communication, humans use bodily orientation, gesture, and facial expression, among myriads of other ways to relay a message. Social and material embeddedness play a large role in meaning-making during the process of communicating. Pea describes two concepts of communication, transmission and ritual views. Transmission is a more dominant view of communication, in which a message is transmitted over distance in order to exert control. The ritual view of communication is associated with fellowship, sharing, participation, and association. The transmission view has been most dominant in educational practice. Pea then goes on to present a third view, transformative communication, in which it is believed that each "participant potentially provides creative resources for transforming existing practice, in going beyond the common body of knowledge of the field in their inquiries" (p. 288). This represents a two-way dynamic system of active learners. Pea advocates a thorough discussion between teacher and learner, because "it is hard for students to determine what teachers are attempting to communicate through their activities. For the social construction of understanding to take place, these interpretive activities are, of necessity, highly interactive, conversational exchanges requiring conjectures, responses, and repairs for all participants to determine what is meant from what is said and done" (p. 290). Some specific implications for DE include:

A rich variety of media are needed.
There is concern about the learning prospects for students in DE programs with minimal participant interactivity.
Teachers can often not interact with small groups to the exclusion of others, and this prohibits transformative communication.
Today's DL technology fails to create many of the important aspects of transformative communication for learning.
Media technologies need to match highly interactive conversational needs.
Specific activities that take advantage of the offerings of the technology are likely to pay off.
Distributed multimedia learning environments may enrich the capabilities of participants to communicate.

Articles relating to cognition and learning styles

Garrison, D. R. (1993). A cognitive constructivist view of distance education: An analysis of teaching-learning assumptions. Distance Education, 14, 2, 199-211.

This article explores the teaching-learning process in DE. It suggests that a cognitive constructivist view of learning may help distance educators design more efficient instruction. Two predominant theories (behavioral and cognitive) and their implications for DE are examined. A detailed description of cognitive constructivist learning theory is given, in which it states that this theory "is concerned with meaningful learning. The learner takes responsibility to construct meaning actively, not in isolation, but through dialogue with oneself as well as others" (p. 201). Knowledge structures can only be constructed by the learner, therefore "the role of the teacher is to monitor continually the learner's cognitive processes and challenge or question inappropriate or unclear perspectives." Through sustained dialog, the learners attempt to clarify, validate, and interpret their understanding. Teachers become the facilitators of learning and understanding, and they share the control of the learning transaction (p. 202). Based on cognitive learning theories, some of the implications for distance education include:

Learning "necessitates consideration of alternative perspectives, discussing discrepancies with regard to previous understanding [...] negotiating meaning with the teacher and fellow students" (p. 204).
"Teaching is not the transmission of prescribed informationp; it is a process of facilitating the exploration and creation of meaning through collaboration. The teacher can enhance motivation, facilitate learning, and encourage critical analysis" (p. 204).
Acquisition of knowledge is "never complete and, therefore, we must see our understanding as tentative and subject to constant validation and revision" (p. 205).
"Pre-packaged learning materials are generally prescriptive in nature and afford little flexibility over what is to be learned and how" (p. 205).
Independent thought is "best achieved through sustained two-way communication where skepticism and the challenging of assumptions are modeled and encouraged" (p. 206).
"If the goal of distance education is to facilitate learners in their construction of meaning, then methods, materials and evaluation must be congruent with that goal." (p. 208)
Planning the course and assessment questions must be carefully conducted "to avoid presenting a learning context which is perceived by students to acquire, or reward, surface approaches." (p. 208)

Though its emphasis seems to be on endorsing DE that includes more two-way interaction than the old standard of written correspondence, this article provides useful suggestions for distance educators who already are teaching in an interactive two-way system. It serves as a reminder that whether one teaches in the traditional or distance classroom, the principles of cognitive learning theory apply.

James, Waynne Blue, & Gardner, Daniel L. (1995) Learning styles: implications for distance learning. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 67, Fall.

This article discusses learning styles, instruments available to assess learning-style differences, different types of distance learning, and how addressing learning styles can enhance DL. Three interconnected dimensions of learning styles: perceptual, cognitive, and affective modes, are discussed. The perceptual mode includes physiological factors and addresses the ways individuals assimilate information. Perceptual elements include visual, print, aural, interactive, haptic (touch), kinesthetic (movement), and olfactory (smell and taste). The cognitive dimension encompasses information processing habits such as storage and retrieval, perception, thinking, and problem solving. The affective dimension includes attention, valuing, and emotion. Four generations of distance learning delivery systems, based on D.R. Garrison's model are described. Generation one consists of print-oriented learning. Generation two includes audio and/or video teleconferencing with two-way audio. Generation three systems are computer-based, individualized, and self-paced, but somewhat like generation one in that they are fairly non-interactive among students. The fourth generation included two-way audio and video, virtual reality and video desktop, and any other possible future DL systems. Some suggestions for effective DL use include:

Incorporate good sound instructional design, which "takes advantage of the strengths of a particular technology and compensates for its weaknesses" (p.25).
Base design of instruction on knowledge of how humans learn.
Be concerned with the same issues as designers of traditional classroom instruction.
Add visual material to print-based materials, and add print and visual media to primarily auditory methods to address more learning styles and enhance learning.
Provide as much variety as possible to reach more learning styles.
The three most commonly preferred modalities are visual, interactive, and haptic.
Structure content into small units.
Provide for active participation of distance learners.
Provide learners with choices about the process and content.
Include different cultural perspectives.
Communicate with learners as if they were in the near proximity.
Call students by name.
Use low-threat testing, if testing is necessary.

Most of these suggestions are not unlike the considerations a traditional classroom teacher would need to have in providing an atmosphere that is "individual learner-style friendly". This article is, like much of the DE literature, specifically about adult learners, which should be kept in mind. Unfortunately, specifics pertaining to methods to reach all the different kinds of learners are not mentioned. What, for example, are some concrete methods or activities that one can use in a distance learning setting to enhance the educational experience of the haptic and kinesthetic learner? Such specifics are not addressed in this article.

Carter, Vicki. (1996). Do media influence learning? Revisiting the debate in the context of distance education. Open Learning, Feb. 1996, 31-40.

This article first addresses the counterpoint of findings by R.E. Clark and R.B. Kozma on the question of whether or not media influence learning. Clark maintains that media has no influence and will never have any influence on learning. Kozma, on the other hand, regards method and media as being related and interconnected and looks to the future in asking if media and learning will exist. Findings of Jonassen, Campbell, and Davidson are then discussed, which refute both Clark and Kozma by stating that they've been debating the wrong issue. They assert that practitioners "must explore the effects of cognition with media and technology and not continue to investigate the results of technology. Several differing theories are given on the relationship between media and learning in DE. The article provides a general overview of the various theories concerning this important question. The author states regarding Clark's views, that "most citations in the distance education literature indicated his positioning was mainstream" (p.37).

Although this article summarizes many of the opinions regarding the possible influence of media on learning, it poses questions and implicates the need for further investigation rather than providing answers. Practical implications for the distance learning practitioner are not to be found here. If, someday, evidence shows that media undoubtedly do or do not influence learning, the implications for instructional technology and distance education will obviously be gargantuan. In fact, it would appear from the review below of Katherine S. Cennamo's article, that media do, in fact influence learning. So, read on!

Cennamo, Katherine S. (1994). Learning from video: factors influencing learners' preconceptions and invested mental effort. In ETR&D, 41, 3, 33-45.

Preconceptions about the mental effort put forth in viewing television and video-based lessons are addressed in this article. The author proposes that the amount of effort invested in a lesson has a direct correlation with the learners' preconceptions of the delivery medium. Television is perceived as being a passive, easy medium. Learners, it states, "assess a learning situation in terms of the characteristics of the task and the characteristics of the medium. They make a decision as to the ease or difficulty of the lesson based on their past experience with similar events. They then decide to exert a certain amount of effort in processing the lesson" (p.34). Certain skills seem to be associated with varying levels of difficulty. Psychomotor skills and attitudes were found to be easier to learn with television and interactive video than from computers and print-based materials, whereas verbal information and intellectual skills were found to be more difficult to learn from television than the other media. A high correspondence between audio and video elements in video-based lessons was found to facilitate reception of higher scores on certain tests. Other important findings for those in the field of television-related DE include:

Learners "expend maximum effort on a task that is challenging to them" (p. 40).
Instructional designers should minimize the effort required to make sense of the content, while maximizing the effort the learners must expend on elaborating the content.
Reduce complexity of the message by using simple syntax, related cuts, high
correlation between audio and video, and making the message central to the story content.
Provide pauses after complex segments.
Inform or remind users that the materials are meant to be educational (as opposed to
entertaining), and that they should aim to learn as much as possible from the lesson.
"Attempt to use the medium of presentation which is most appropriate for teaching
skills in the domain of the target learning outcome (p. 42).
Target the materials to the age of the learners

These findings may be of use for any instructional designers working with video-based or television-based instructional media. The fact that the general population considers television to be easy and passive has direct bearing on the practices of those of us working in televised DL. In addition to the findings of the article, I might add that it would be helpful to encourage a great deal of reflection and sharing of ideas in all forms of video-based DE to promote interaction (as opposed to passivity) and deepen the learner's understanding.

Practical Information on Teaching Methods in DE

Sparkes, John J. (1993). Matching teaching methods to educational aims in distance education. In D. Keegan (ed) Theoretical principles of distance education. London & New York: Routledge.

After defining what is meant by certain terms like knowledge, skills, and understanding, preferred learning styles are addressed. A contrast is made between "holist" and "serialist" learners. Holist learners prefer to view a complex subject in it's entirety before filling in the details, whereas serialist learners prefer a step-by-step progression through a subject. Other learning styles mentioned include "verbalizers, visualizers, and doers" (p. 140). Some proposals for reaching learners with varying learner styles include:

Conceptually difficult material should be taught in more than one way.
Learning-by-doing may be inappropriate for the intellectually brightest students.
Students should discover their own preferred learning styles and distinguish between strategies.
Require outputs (in testing) that require thought and insight.
Oral exams are generally impractical in DE, but are effective at testing understanding when it is possible to implement them.
Intermix various teaching methods.
If memorization does take place, make it more palatable by showing relevance through case-studies, using discovery methods, and frequent testing.
Concepts should be discussed, exercised, applied, read about, written about, and asked about; in addition to being defined, described, used, and analyzed by the students if they are to properly internalize them.
Allow students to actively participate by expressing their own views and explanations.
Have students talk about what they do understand, rather than listen once again to what they don't understand.
Interactive video can be useful for skills development, but it, (like most drill-and-practice computer programs, and many of the currently existing multimedia work stations) does not directly assist with concept development.
Use active or problem-based learning.
Demand understanding for students' solutions.
If understanding is the goal, "the assessment methods must make deep learning essential, otherwise students will continue to follow the easier route of relying on their memory and well-practiced skills" (p. 149).

Thach, Elizabeth C.; Murphy, Karen L. (1995). Competencies for distance education professionals. ETR&D, 43, 1, 57-79.

This article details a study conducted by surveying 103 distance educators. The objectives of this study were to identify key roles, outputs, and competencies of DE professionals, rate the importance of these competencies and outputs, identify the frequency of use by role, and identify whether or not all these elements could be grouped to create a descriptive competency model for DE professionals. Some of the findings and implications include:

Teachers need to adapt teaching patterns to technology, maintain interaction, engage learners, and collaborate with others in course development.
Instructors wanted more training on how to foster interaction with the students, design visual aids, deal with technicians and site coordinators, and how to use the technology more efficiently.
Effective distance instruction requires thoughtful course adaptation.
Important factors include: praising students, calling them by name, smiling, and providing individual feedback.
Communication between students at different sites, the instructor, and the support staff was essential.
Teach the students how to interact over the technology.
Plan discussions and other activities to promote interaction among students.
Promote teamwork rather than competition, among students at various sites.
The "instructor needs to operate from a systems perspectivep;seeing the big picture of how the presentation, technology, distant sites, and learning process all come together" (p. 62).

In addition to providing valuable information regarding competencies for DE professionals, the article includes copies of the surveys used and many charts detailing and outlining the important feedback received from the surveys. This article is extremely valuable for practical DE teaching information.

Bruce, Mary Alice; Shade, Richard A. (1995). Effective teaching and learning strategies using compressed video. Techtrends, Sept, 18-22.

This article presents possible solutions to potential concerns of learners and instructors in a compressed video DL system. Some of their findings through experience include:

Management issues compounded as enrollment increased.
In addition to with-in site discussions, cross-site discussions can be made possible by
including one learner from each site.
Discussions may be limited to one or two issues in order to allow enough time for
discussion.
Giving notice of the time remaining for discussions is helpful.
Role-play is possible, though careful planning and time control is essential for
success.
Addressing each site or person is helpful.
It is beneficial to have learners introduce themselves by name before they speak.
Modeling of discussion behaviors was deemed useful.
Instructors often don't know if learners are attentive. Participants may be able to turn
off microphones and talk among themselves.
Learners who wanted to talk during class designated an out-of-classroom location for off-subject talk.
Depersonalization occurred due to lack of physical contact.
Use strategies such as addressing affective issues directly.
Address learners by individual name and refer to ideas and actions various learners
share in class.
Weekly journals can be shared cross-site, within-site, and with the instructor.
Relevant personal vignettes and experiences enrich lectures.
Cartoons and comics bring human warmth to the setting.
Auditory dynamics are very important due to the lack of visual cues: voice tones
communicating enthusiasm generate warmth and a positive self-image.
Voice enthusiasm is crucial for motivation.
Provide information in small components--10 minutes is a recommended maximum.
A short time for reflective summary at the end of class was beneficial.
Push-button microphones may hinder spontaneity.

These experiences are, of course, based on the experience of one DE system. I find many of the recommendations and experiences are similar to what I have experienced, are ideas that I may try to incorporate into my classes, and are generally useful. My own experience, however, is that a push-button microphone is desirable, even though students are able to turn them off and talk among themselves, because students, it seems, will talk whether or not they are able to be heard by others. Therefore, the use of push-button microphones, though hindering spontaneity, are useful for keeping the students from disturbing students in other sites with their chatter. It is better for them to be able to turn off the microphones and talk than simply talk and disturb the other classes. Obviously the best situation would be if they wouldn't talk at all, but the teacher really has no control over that from a distance. Microphones left on all the time pick up so much extra noise (school bells, announcements, paper shuffling, outside noises, etc), that it is ineveitably disturbing to the instructor and students in other sites.

Willis, Barry. (1993). Distance Education: A Practical Guide. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications. (excert in ERIC Digest) http://www.cudenver.edu/~lsherry/strategies.txt

This work is chock full of practical information for the distance educator. Here are some of the strategies:

Effective teaching at a distance is more the result of preparation than innovation.
DL teachers have few visual cues from students, which limits their ability to adjust the course delivery during the course of a lesson.
New strategies and additional preparation time are needed to adapt content for delivery via DL.
Begin course planning by studying DE research findings (Blanchard, 1989; Moore & Thompson, 1990, are recommended).
Hands-on training with the technology of delivery is vital for both students and teacher.
Start class with a frank discussion to set rules, guidelines, and standards. Once procedures have been established, consistently uphold them.
Start off slowly with a manageable number of students and sites.
Make students aware of and comfortable with new patterns of communication to be used in the course.
Learn about students' backgrounds and discuss instructor's background.
Focus on the problem-solving, not placing blame for the occasional technical difficulty.
Integrate a variety of systems for interaction and feedback: one-on-one, conference calls, fax, e-mail, and personal visits.
Contact each site (or student) every week, especially in the beginning of the course.
Take note of which students don't participate early in the semester and contact them individually.
Make detailed comments on written work with references to further resources.
Return assignments without delay.
Use pre-class study questions and advance organizers to encourage critical thinking and informed participation.
Have students keep a journal of their thoughts and ideas on course content, as well as their individual progress and other concerns.
Politely but firmly discourage individuals from monopolizing class time.
The facilitator can act as your eyes and ears.
Presenting content via DE is generally more time-consuming than in traditional classrooms.
Diversify and pace course activities, interspersing content presentations with discussions and student-centered exercises.
Be concise, using short cohesive statements, and ask direct questions.
Personalize instructor involvement.

Shneiderman, Ben. (1993). Engagement and construction: educational strategies for the post-TV era. Journal of Computing in Higher Education, Spring, 4,2,106-116.

As the title states, this article deals with engaging students in construction of products. The goal should be the construction of products that are useful or interesting to someone other than the teacher. The post-TV era, with multimedia, computers, interactive videodisc, and so forth, will be different than the "orderly structure of industrial age mechanisms and the repetitiveness of the assembly line" (p. 107). Engagement is defined as being interaction with people or students working together, like they would in the workplace. Some practical ideas for engagement in this article include creation of informative videos, hypermedia documents, simulation models, and scheduling programs.

Construction of something that is important or interesting to someone else tends to be highly motivating. Such active modes of teaching turn students into creators, inquirers, and receivers of knowledge. A figure outlines many key words for planning such activities: create, explore, plan, build, help, discover, communicate, participate, initiate, and collaborate. Major categories of product construction include: writing, drawing, composing, designing, and planning. This article contains very practical ideas for constructivistic activities.

Shneiderman, Ben, et al. (1995). Windows of opportunity in electronic classrooms. Communications of the ACM, 38, 11, 19-24.

This article discusses electronic classrooms built at the University of Maryland, which include networked computers and video and audio conferencing. Some of the accomplishments and ideas based on their experiences include:

They used the term "learning theaters" to emphasize student-centered learning styles.
Most faculty acknowledged spending more preparation time to use the electronic classroom.
Ways to get beyond lectures included: expanded use of videotapes, software demonstrations, video visualizers, computerized presentations, etc.
Software use during class enabled students to write essays, poems, access image databases, do landscape design and other individualized learning experiences.
They found that pairs work well.
Typical final student projects were four times as long as in traditional classes.
More active participation by students using collaborative tools was a great success.
They budget for a high level of support staff, faculty training, and software acquisition.
Popular features included idea sharing, brainstorming, interactivity and electronic note-taking.
Faculty want richer software tools, easier methods of collaboration, larger image databases, and faster network access.

Articles related to computers, telecommunications, and the future of DE

Soloway, Elliot. (1995). Beware, techies bearing gifts. Communications of the ACM, January, 58, 1, 17-24.

Some excellent ideas for ways to enhance deep learning through using the internet and computerized collaboration are found in this article. It mentions the possibilities that exist, "if schools enable students to probe deeply and intensively into a topic for an extended period of time, if teachers and peers read and comment on multiple drafts of a collaborative report, if students are able to make their observations and findings available to other interested parties and engage in dialog with others..." (pp. 17-18)
A valuable question is posed on page 18: "How much effort can we expect youngsters to put into throwaway reports?" Uses of such collaborative computer technologies discussed include: teacher education, digital party lines, web publishing, and desktop videoconferencing.

Unfortunately, the author dismisses all broadcast-based DL systems as being "the old broadcasting model", that is "a lecturing, talking head", which "does not profoundly change the pedagogy", and therefore, "students don't learn" (p. 20). It seems fair to assume that some of these "older" systems go beyond the expectations that they are simply lecturing talking heads. I know, because I teach one! And unfortunately, many of the DL programs that exist, like the one for which I teach, don't have the luxury of having a computer for every two students (or even one per classroom in many cases). I assume that some day they will, and when they do, intend to utilize that capability to a great extent. While pointing out excellent opportunities for student learning and engagement in the field of distance learning, this article, unfortunately, perpetuates negative stereotypes that are counterproductive to the field of distance education.

Berge, Zane. (1995). Computer-mediated communication and the online classroom in distance learning. Computer-Mediated Communication Magazine, 2, 4, 6. http://sunsite.unc.edu/cmc/mag/1995/apr/berge.html

Computer-mediated communication (CMC) is one of the newer applications of DE, which is learner-centered. This article presents ideas and theory regarding the use of CMC in a DE program. The author admonishes that as new technologies enable changes in educational delivery, the old technologies are augmented, not replaced. Learner-centeredness has not been historically well-implemented in distance education. However, networked computers are now providing ample opportunities for distant learners to exercise autonomy over the learning process and have access to a world of information that enables us to be lifelong learners. The author asserts that "we must teach students to become lifelong learners by helping them locate the resources to continue learning." Some of the current foci of DE are different learning styles, how students create their own meaning when learning new things, and what makes a difference in retention of information is not what teachers do, but what learners can be encouraged to do themselves. Constructivism, practice-centered learning (PCL), cooperative learning, and collaboration are all viable methods using current technologies. Some of the possibilities include:

Uniting computers with telecommunications can "bring down the schoolhouse walls."
Learners have the freedom to explore alternative pathways to discover and develop their own style of learning.
The students' ability to construct knowledge is enhanced when instructors utilize varied instructional delivery formats.
Computers can facilitate teaching to multiple intelligences.

This is the introductory chapter to a book, which looks to be a very current, pedagogically sound, and exciting look into current DE possibilities. The remaining chapters cover such topics as more CMC applications, effective design, the use of electronic guest lectures, and a variety of other current DE systems.

Kinnaman, Daniel E. (1995). The future of distance education. Technology and Learning, January, 15,4,58.

Here is a one-page, brief, yet insightful article regarding possible futures for DE. The author first addresses a commercial he saw on television, depicting a classroom of the future, in which nothing had changed from a traditional classroom except that the teacher was on a TV set. According to the article, this actually subtracts educational value and is the wrong approach to distance learning. Such one-to-many broadcasts focus too much on instructional delivery and not enough on intellectual engagement, progress of individual students, nor participation. An example is given of a DL project in which students learn in the context of an expedition with a many-to-many DL system. A team is actually on-site, traveling, while students in the schools communicate, research, and make decisions about where the team should go next. Another possible application involves 500 students of all ages, from all over the country, collaborating on a beach pollution problem. The telecommunications link enabled them to work with data and criteria, as well as collaborate on possible problems, causes, and solutions. These projects involve multiple teachers and students collaborating as a community of practitioners. The future of DL is, it says, "about a collaboration between teachers and technology that overcomes the restrictions of time and space, enabling students to learn more, in less time, and with far less overhead."

Conclusion

A great deal of information, perhaps a plethora of information, exists regarding the field of distance education. It is probable that there are many DE teachers, like myself, who may not have had a course in DE theory, strategies, techniques, etc. Although I have learned a great deal from personal experience, I find it important to view the literature in this field, in order to attempt to better understand the theoretical underpinnings of DE, and current pedagogical strategies and methodologies in this growing, changing field. Hopefully, this document will be useful for DE teachers in finding some resources that help them in their teaching. Based on the information I found, however, there seems to be a need for even more practical information and resources. There are abundant lists of recommendations, but not much along the lines of concrete specifics based on recommendations. DE teachers ought to have a forum for sharing lesson plans, image databases, or any other practical resources that can be used in actual distance teaching settings. All the theoretical information about constructivism and student-centered goals in DE is out there, but what about specific lesson ideas that have been thoroughly planned to incorporate these goals in various subjects? How can I apply principles of cognitive constructivism to a DL foreign language class at three different levels? If researchers developed concrete lesson plans and materials for each instructional theory they wrote about, much more of this theory would be in actual use in education (distance or traditional) today.

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