Michael L. Wray

Metro State College of Denver

Brent G. Wilson

University of Colorado at Denver

September 2001

A case study in instructional design, for inclusion in Peg Ertmer and Jim Quinn, Eds., ID Casebook 2^nd edition, to be published by Merrill/Prentice-Hall.

Charge from the Dean

It’s a rainy day as Beth Owen arrives to meet with Dean Carlton Jacobs. Stepping into the Dean’s suite, she laughs as she shakes the remaining water from her raincoat. "I always enjoy the rain, especially in the West. We don’t get enough of it!" Beth has lived the last ten years in Colorado, first as a stay-at-home mom, more recently completing a master’s degree in Instructional Design from a nearby state university. Eight months ago she accepted a faculty consulting position at State College, a four-year open-enrollment college in the downtown metro area. State’s academic programs are always changing, and faculty members appreciate the instructional-design support that Beth provides. At any given time Beth is consulting on 12-15 projects, with only occasional in-depth analysis and evaluation. Technology leadership is a part of the job, but she sees her primary role as helping faculty members make the transition from traditional teaching methods to more constructivist, meaningful kinds of teaching activities.

Dean Jacobs welcomes Beth into the office. "Thank you again for meeting with me. Your study of our programs is one of my highest priorities right now, and I know your findings will make a big difference to us." The School of Consumer Technology was recently divided, with the always-growing Management Information and Office Systems (moving out to create their own school, leaving the remaining half of the students in a wide array of services-oriented programs: Cosmetology, Fashion Merchandising, Hospitality Management, and Culinary Arts. The Dean is anxious to develop a growth plan for his remaining programs and to make improvements at all levels. His first goal is to review the Culinary Arts program, the smallest within the school.

"As you know," the Dean continues, "Information and Office Systems was something of a cash cow for us, to some extent subsidizing our smaller programs. Now every program has to stand on its own legs, both quality-wise and by the raw numbers. We’re starting our analysis with Culinary Arts. The program is small but self-sustaining. We’re having a few problems that I’d like you to look at."

Beth is looking forward to jumping in on this project, but just a little anxious about the prospects. In her eight months at State, she has heard occasional rumors about the program director. Chef Gerhard Reiner is known to be something of a taskmaster and disciplinarian. Beth turns to the Dean, "I understand that the program director of Culinary Arts, Gerhard Reiner, teaches both the introductory class as well as the upper-level culinary classes. His teaching and leadership must be important to the program."

The Dean responds, "Yes, he’s a major figure. Reiner gets very good teaching ratings, although you’ll always find the occasional student who can’t stand him. He is well-known within the school for being a challenging instructor. He maintains strict rules in his lab; any student can tell you that!"

"What kind of rules?" Beth is curious about this instructor. She doubts that this chef has even heard of such things as constructivist teaching methods.

The Dean leans toward Beth. "I’ve had a couple of students in my office in tears, feeling overwhelmed by the demands of the program. They feel Chef Reiner is too strict. With enrollments more of an issue now, I don’t want to lose any students unnecessarily. It’s all about including all students and growing enrollments."

The Dean leans back in his chair, continuing. "My problem is complicated. I want the program to produce quality graduates, but I also want to retain students and grow the program. I’d like you to figure out how we can be more inclusive, improve retention, and maintain a quality program at the same time!"

"Piece o’ cake!" Beth jokingly replies. "Thanks for your time, Dean Jacobs. I think I would like to see the classroom and visit with Chef Reiner." The Dean replied, "I’ll give you much more than that! How about a personal tour and lunch in our student dining room?"

Beth smiles expectantly, "I think that would be wonderful; please lead the way." Dean Jacobs shakes hands with Beth and escorts her from his office to the culinary labs.

Tour and Lunch

Beth is eager to see the students in action. Dean Jacobs shows her the student culinary lab, where students are preparing the meal before service. She is impressed to see everyone in crisp uniforms, each busy and involved in food production. It is easy to see who is in charge. Chef Reiner, in his tall white hat, has an air of authority, his name clearly embroidered on his starched chef whites, with his culinary title and a patch from the school he attended prominent on his breast pocket. The students rush from their work areas, receiving instructions from the Chef. She notices him sampling the students’ work, tasting and checking temperatures.

Following the tour, the Dean and Beth take a seat in a small dining room adjacent to the culinary lab. The room is filled with administrators and staff that pay a small fee to attend the luncheon. The Dean explains, "The restaurant serves meals three days per week, offering a sample of the students’ accomplishments. It continues to be a popular event on the campus and also attracts the general public." Beth smiles as she is served an inviting meal of roast chicken with a light cream sauce. "The plate is so elegant," Beth remarks. The garnish on the plate captures Beth’s attention: roasted tomatoes pierced by rosemary stems. Beth sighs, "It smells wonderful." The Dean nods in agreement as they both begin their meal.

During lunch, Beth begins to think about her approach toward advising the Chef. She wants to introduce constructivist teaching principles, but it may be difficult to convince an authoritarian program director of the benefits of constructivism. Reiner’s approach to teaching seems antiquated and somewhat confrontational.

Beth declines the dessert, although it does look delicious, a five layer chocolate cake with a rich frosting, and mint leaves. Decadent indeed. Beth keeps imagining how nice the dessert would have been as she watches other guests enjoy it. But she settles for coffee and enjoys the pleasant service by the students.

After the meal, Beth concludes her tour with the Dean and is anxious to get a chance to meet Chef Reiner and talk to him about the course. She thanks Dean Jacobs for his time and shakes his hand firmly.

Meeting the Chef

Beth knocks on Chef Reiner’s door with a sense of anticipation. She wonders about the person she will meet on the other side of the door. What is he like, really? As the door opens, Beth is greeted by a carefully-dressed, trim-looking man in his mid-30s. Extending his hand, he says, "Good morning, I’m Gerhard Reiner, I’ve been looking forward to meeting you." Beth is relieved to see a tentative smile on Gerhard’s face. Stepping into the office, the two engage in conversation aimed at breaking the ice.

When Beth takes her seat, she is immediately impressed by the order of the room. The desk is clear, all items seemed in their place. Beth’s eyebrows rise as she notices that the books on the shelves are in order of height, smallest to the tallest, and the edges of the books are in line with the shelf. She smiles and thanks Chef Reiner for a great lunch. "It was a true pleasure", he returns. I’m glad you had the chance to see the students working."

Gerhard gets to the point. "When the Dean told me of your coming, I immediately thought of how you could help us improve growth in our program. I’m looking forward to our work together. How can I help you get started?"

Beth reflects for a moment and responds, "Perhaps you could start by telling me about the successes the program has had. Tell me about your history with the college and what you consider the strengths of the program."

Chef Reiner begins a lengthy recital of his qualifications and the program’s strengths. He has been at City College for five years, following a career as an executive chef for a major cruise line. He had also worked in fine dining in France and Germany. He speaks several languages and has had the opportunity to work with many fine chefs. He is also the President of the local chapter of the American Culinary Federation. His students have a chapter as well, and participate in local competitions. The program’s greatest accomplishment is the quality of the graduates. Before his arrival, the prior Dean was concerned about the reputation of the program. They hired Gerhard to develop prestige for the school and produce quality graduates, capable of obtaining high-level chef positions throughout the metropolitan area.

"Since I arrived," Chef Reiner explains, "I have instituted a student dining room that produces meals three days a week, like you saw today. Before that, we had no output for the student work; most of the food production was in the classroom only. I have found that students like to see the public enjoy the meals they produce."

Beth agrees. "I certainly enjoyed it!"

Chef Reiner continues: "We have had problems with student professional standards, and I have worked hard to reverse that problem."

"What do you mean, professional standards?" asks Beth.

"We are in a metropolitan area," Chef Reiner explains, "Our students don’t like to wear uniforms, and maintain hygiene standards. We have had problems with long hair, nailpolish, jewelry, and piercings, that are not part of a professional and sanitary kitchen."

"How have you solved that problem?" Beth asks. Chef Reiner shows her his culinary laboratory evaluation sheet (see Figure 1). "Following each class the students are evaluated on their appearance, quality of work, attendance, and so forth."

Figure 1. Students are evaluated on these behaviors every day.

Beth studies the performance criteria and behavioral categories. Something in this grading sheet conflicts with her constructivist principles. Beth ponders how effective a point system like this would be. She sees the value of meaningful experiences like the student lunch, but wonders how such strict behavioral monitoring can be effective..

Beth looks up from the sheet. "Hmm. Neatness, organization, teamwork, following instructions. Does this work? How do the students respond to this evaluation?"

"It is quite effective," Gerhard explains. "Before our daily evaluations, I would get frustrated with student uniforms and professionalism in class. They would not behave professionally and respect uniform standards. I would give them low grades, and they would get angry and not understand why they would get a bad grade. It is almost as if they expected to get an ‘A’ for just being here."

Beth’s mind is racing with ideas and conflicts as she asks, "How does the checklist evaluation change that?"

Chef Reiner is resolute in his response. "I get better performance from the students because the evaluations tell them what I expect. If they don’t behave professionally, they can see how many points they will lose for not meeting standards. It is also less stressful on me," Gerhard explains.

"How do you mean?" Beth wants to understand what’s going on in the Chef’s mind.

"At first I would do the same as I was taught in culinary school. If a student didn’t show up in uniform or behaved unprofessionally, I’d send them home and give them a zero for the day."

Beth chuckles, "How did that go over?"

Smiling, Gerhard responds, "Not well at all! Students got frustrated and I quickly realized I’d lose most of my students. So, the daily evaluation gives them more immediate feedback on my expectations. They can choose to change their behavior internally, knowing the penalty. I’d say the daily forms are less forceful than how things were before"

Beth is skeptical. "Less forceful?"

Gerhard explains: "Most students actually like getting a grade each day–and they don’t blame me as much for their grade. At least they know where they stand. The bottom line is, my students now wear their uniforms and act like a team. I do have some who still don’t respond, but overall it’s much better."

Beth is trying to process this approach. "Do you think the evaluation is causing some students to drop out?"

Gerhard sighs, "No, they make this decision themselves. I view my role as preparing them for success in the industry. Kitchens require a distinct chain of authority and rules. The students need to learn how to survive in that environment while in school. If not, they won’t succeed in business. I’d rather they fail here than later on the job."

Raising her eyebrows, Beth responds, "Are you saying if they can’t stand the heat, get out of the kitchen?"

"Exactly!" Chef Reiner continues: "I realized that these students had never learned to take school or work seriously and professionally. So I created a performance system that takes me out of the picture, almost entirely. Instead of blaming me when they don’t get the grade they want, they look at the point totals and see where they can change."

"Sounds like it worked," Beth admits.

Gerhard continues with enthusiasm: "You wouldn’t believe the difference. Before, I had students refusing to complete a cooking assignment, afraid it would wreck their nails. Nail polish, clothes, hairdo, whatever the excuse, I had students not doing the work. Now, everyone shows up on time, in uniform, ready to work. And word has spread around campus. The students take a great deal of pride in their accomplishments. Employers see the difference too. We have a 96% placement rate, with starting pay up 60% in five years."

Beth stands to leave. "You’ve given me a lot to think about. Let me get back to you with some notes and observations, then we’ll figure out where to go from here."

"That sounds fine," answers Gerhard as he stands to see Beth out. "If I can be of further help, please feel free to ask." Shaking hands, Beth leaves the office with a lot to think about. "Maybe I should have had that dessert!" she muses, returning to her car, umbrella in hand. The rain is gone and the sun is shining again.

On the drive home, Beth continues to turn these ideas over in her mind. She is unsettled about the strict behaviorist approach employed by the program, but it seems to be working so well. She had wanted to suggest more constructivist ideas, but didn’t quite see where they would fit. In fact, the case is something of a challenge to Beth’s preexisting beliefs about good teaching.

Beth Owens, an instructional designer working in a faculty consulting position, encounters an academic program leader, Chef Gerhard, who uses both constructivist strategies (a student-run restaurant) and behaviorist strategies (a daily behavioral assessment). Based on Beth's initial observations, the combined use of constructivist and behaviorist strategies seems to be working. Trained in constructivist methods, Beth must confront her own professional biases and test her beliefs against her observations. She also must consider how competing theories can be combined and used in practice.

Case Objectives

After analyzing, discussing, and responding to Beth Owens, instructional design students will be able to:

1. Acknowledge the occasional conflicts that can arise between a professional’s "textbook" knowledge and their field observations.
2. Articulate positive ways to address and (sometimes) resolve these conflicts.
3. Identify their own professional beliefs that might bias their response to problems encountered in the field.
4. Reflect upon and defend their way of handling contradictions between different theories and ideologies, e.g., between constructivism and behaviorism.

Debriefing Guidelines

The Beth Owens case presents two related dilemmas for instructional designers:

--how to deal with ideological conflicts between one’s field observations and preexisting beliefs

--how to accommodate multiple theoretical perspectives in one’s practice

These are dilemmas that practicing designers face regularly in their work. The goal of this case is not to have all students come to a particular position concerning theory and practice–or concerning constructivism and behaviorism. Rather, the case is intended to heighten awareness of these kinds of conflicts by presenting them in the context of a typical professional encounter.

1. Acknowledge the occasional conflicts that can arise between a professional’s "textbook" knowledge and their field observations.

The conflicts are especially keen for those who remain active in scholarly conversations facing the field. A number of philosophies and orientations are competing for primacy, each tending toward exclusive claims. A weak eclecticism would have designers maintain a shopping-menu attitude toward different theories. A problem with pure eclecticism, however, is its lack of solid professional grounding. Designers should be encouraged to adopt a personal philosophy that provided a means of incorporating elements of different approaches into a more coherent framework for practice. The Beth Owens case provides an opportunity to discuss these issues. Students can then come to adopt a more mature stance toward theory and practice.

2. Articulate positive ways to address and (sometimes) resolve these conflicts.

Chef Reiner’s daily assessments are consistent with a cognitive/behavioral approach to motivation that stresses

–establishing expectations;

–encouraging student goal-setting and self-regulation;

–fostering a sense of discipline and self-efficacy among student learners.

Motivation researchers in this tradition are sometimes called "neo-behaviorists" because, while referring to mental events, they use a mechanistic model of mind and maintain popular behaviorist themes: rewards, punishments, satisfaction of goals and desires, etc. See the reference list for examples of research in this area.

Postmodern or critical pedagogies may be useful as frameworks for understanding how to accommodate multiple perspectives in one’s work. Joan Wink’s text (see reference list) includes a compelling "story of Jonathan" wherein she faces a problem of practice that causes her to reconsider her theoretical beliefs.

3. Identify their own professional beliefs that might bias their response to problems encountered in the field.

Beth Owens must confront her professional biases and find a way to learn from her professional encounters, in this case, from an instructor employing behavioral assessments that serve an important purpose in the curriculum. In a similar manner, students responding to the case should be encouraged to examine their beliefs and biases, and demonstrate a commitment to remain open to change as a result of direct encounters on the job.

Reflect upon and defend their way of handling contradictions between different theories and ideologies, e.g., between constructivism and behaviorism.

4. Beth has only begun her review of the Culinary Arts program. What further data should be gathered to address the Dean’s concerns and provide suggestions for improving the program?

As part of an overall evaluation of the program, Beth should probably review course enrollments and credit production, graduation rates, employment surveys, instructor ratings for all instructors, accreditation reports, comments of advisory committees, and related data. These additional data can provide a clearer picture about the health of the program, and pinpoint areas in need of improvement.

Brophy, J. (1987, October). Synthesis of research on strategies for motivating students to learn. Educational Leadership, 40-48.

Dweck, C. S. (1975). The role of expectations and attributions in the alleviation of learned helplessness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31(4), 674-685.

Pintrich, P.R. & Schunk, D.H. (1995). Motivation in education: Theory, research, and applications. Englewood Cliffs, JF: Prentice Hall.

Vroom, V., & Deci, E. (1992). Work and motivation (2^nd ed.). London: Penguin.

Zimmerman, B.J., & Bandura, A. (1994). Impact of self-regulatory influences on writing course attainment. American Educational Research Journal, 31, 845-862.

Professional Reflection and Use of Theory

Palmer, P. J. (1997, November/December). The heart of a teacher: Identity and integrity in teaching. Change, 15-21.

Wilson, B. G. (1997). Reflections on constructivism and instructional design. In C. R. Dills & A. J. Romoszowski (Eds.), Instructional development paradigms (pp. 63—80). Englewood Cliffs NJ: Educational Technology Publications. Available: http://carbon.cudenver.edu/~bwilson/construct.html

Wilson, B. G. (1999, January). The dangers of theory-based design. Invited paper to ITForum. Online: http://ceo.cudenver.edu/~brent_wilson/dangers.html

Wilson, B. G. (1999). Adoption of learning technologies: Toward new frameworks for understanding the link between design and use. Educational Technology, 39 (1), 12-16. Online: http://carbon.cudenver.edu/~bwilson/designuse.html

Wink, J. (2001). Critical pedagogy: Notes from the real world (2^nd ed.). New York: Longman.