Dr. Judith A. Coe
Singer/Songwriter/Composer/Synthesist

History of Voice Pedagogy:  Perspectives, Timeline and Resources
Acoustics, Anatomy, Physiology, and Function

RESPIRATION

Miller, Richard.  National Schools of Singing: English, French, German, and Italian Techniques of Singing Revisited. Lanham, MD:  Scarecrow Press, 1997.

Italian and Other Methods:  Compiled and aaranged from various information and sources, including: Singing Voice: Selected Vocal Resources (Mark D. Williams).

Tosi:
Tosi, Pier Francesco.  Opinioni de' cantori antichi e moderni, o sieno osservazioni sopra il canto figurato.  Bologna, 1723. English trans. by John E. Galliard.  Observations on the Florid Song.  London: Wilcox,1743; 2nd ed. Preface by Paul Henry Lang. New York: Johnson Reprint Corp., 1968. German trans. by J. H. Agricola. Anleitung zur Singkunst. 1757; reprint ed. Celle: H. Möck, 1966.
 

Pier Francesco Tosi (c1646-1732) was born in Bologna.  His father, a musician, recognized some musical talent in the boy and had him castrated hoping he would have a successful career as a singer.  Fortunately for Tosi, his father's wishes were not in vain and Tosi was eventually in great demand throughout Europe.  According to Berton Coffin in his Historical Vocal Pedagogy Classics, "Tosi's book is primarily concerned with the castrato voice and has little to do with the training of the male voice."  Nevertheless there are still many interesting and useful ideas to be gained from studying it.

Tosi recommends that:

  • divisions or rapid melismatic passages be sung on the first of the five Italian vowels                (a, e,  i, o, u),
  • on the third and fifth vowel, the divisions are the worst, and
  • in the best schools the second and fourth vowels were not permitted, when these two vowels are pronounced close or united. (p. 56.) 
Tosi's description of the use of rubato is most interesting since rubato is often thought to be an invention of the Romantic period.  He states:
  • The stealing of time, in the pathetick, is an honourable theft in one that sings better than others, provided he makes a restitution with ingenuity. (p. 156) 
Some other insightful observations by Tosi include: 
  • study with the mind when one cannot with the voice (p. 82) 
  • if the scholar [student] should have any defects of the nose, the throat, or of the ear, let him never sing, but when the master is by (p. 88) 
  • when he studies his lesson at home, let him sometimes sing before a looking-glass to avoid those convulsive motions of the body, or of the face which, when once they have took footing never leave him (pp. 88-89) 
  • to copy is the part of a scholar, that of a master is to invent (p.152) 
  • the best singer in the world continues to study, and persists in it as much to maintain his reputation, as he did to acquire it (p. 158) 
  • he that sings little and well, sings very well. (p. 163) 

Mancini:
Mancini, Giambattista.  Pensieri, e riflessioni pratiche sopra il canto figurato. 1774. Enlarged ed., 1777.  Trans. by Pietro Buzzi. Practical Reflections on the Figurative Art of Singing.  Boston: Gorham, 1912.  Compared, trans., and ed. by Edward Foreman. Champaign, IL:  Pro Musica, 1967.
 
 

Giambattista Mancini (1714-1800) 
  • castrato soprano
  • student of Bernacchi (c1690-1756), the founder of a Bolognese singing school based on the precepts of his teacher, Pistocchi.  Bernacchi's other students included the castrati, Senesino and Carestini, as well as the German tenor Anton Raaf (for whom Mozart wrote the part Idomeneo).
 This is one of the first books to discuss registers in depth. Manicini used a two register model, "chest," and "head" or "falsetto," and taught that they should be equalized using "the natural instinct, but to never force nature."  Mancini also advocated a "smiling" position for the mouth.  While this mouth position may have helped to facilitate the flexibility and coloratura of the castrati of that time, today it is typically reserved only for the highest and lightest of female sopranos. Mancini also felt that the teacher should not simply tell the student what to do: 
  • In giving precise rules to a student, let the teacher not only tell him and explain to him, but let him illustrate his meaning by making himself an example.
As in Tosi's book, much of it is taken up by explanations of the embellishments used at the time, e.g., trills, portamenti, messe di voce, etc.  It should also be remembered that for Tosi and Mancini, the terms head voice and falsetto were used interchangeably to refer to head voice.

Manuel Garcia I:

Garcia I, Manuel (père). Exercises pour la Voix. Paris: A. Parite, c1820. With English Foreward. Exercises and Method for Singing. London: Boosey, 1824.
 
 

The role of Almaviva in Rossini'sIl Barbiere di Siviglia (1816) was written specifically for Garcia père (1775-1832).  Garcia's teachers included:
  • Antonio Ripa
  • Juan Almarcha, and 
  • Giovanni Ansoni. 
Among his students were his children:
  • Manuel Garcia II (1805-1906), 
  • Maria Malibran (1808-1836), and 
  • Pauline Viardot (1821-1910); 
and, the famous French tenor, Adolphe Nourrit (1802-1839). 

Garcia advocated an erect posture with the shoulders back and the arms crossed behind.  He claimed this would "open the chest and bring out the Voice."  While most teachers today advocate the arms at the sides with fingers lightly touching the legs, Garcia's wisdom here cannot be refuted.  Once the voice is "brought out," the student's arms can be moved to other positions.

Other of Garcia's suggestions include: 

  • Always take the breath slowly and without noise.
  • The Throat, Teeth and Lips, must be sufficiently open so that the voice may meet with no impediment. 
As did both Tosi and Mancini, Garcia also emphasized the importance of the messa di voce.  The exercises become increasingly more difficult in both agility and range as would be expected and came to form the basis of the singing and teaching of the bel canto style of the younger Garcia and of later generations.

Manuel Garcia II:

Garcia II, Manuel. Traité complet de l'Art du Chant. 1841, 1847. Rev. ed.  Nouveau Traité sur l'Art du Chant. 1856. Reprint ed. 1872.  Trans. and ed. by Donald V. Paschke.  A Complete Treatise on the Art of Singing.  New York:  Da Capo, 1975 (Part I), 1982 (Part II).
 

The younger Garcia's Treatise, Part One was based on an earlier work, Memoire sur la voix humaine (1840).  Part One presents Garcia's methods for developing the voice; Part Two (1847) discusses the interpretation and application of the principles in Part One and contains many musical examples for illustration. 

During his stint in the French army in 1830, Garcia II had the opportunity to examine in detail the anatomy of the larynx.  This knowledge formed the basis for his theories on vocal production.  In 1854 Garcia II invented the first laryngoscope.  His later publications include Physical Observations of the Human Voice (1855) and Hints on Singing (1894), the latter written primarily to defend his use of the coup de glotte as a training device. 

Garcia II's students included:

  • Jenny Lind, 
  • Mathilde Marchesi, 
  • Julius Stockhausen, 
  • Sir Charles Santley, and 
  • Johanna Wagner, the niece of Richard Wagner.
Teachers of singing today will disagree with Garcia II's designation of the middle register as falsetto, but most will not dispute the success of his methods.  He is one of the first to discuss the clair (bright or open) and sombre (dark or covered) timbres of the voice.  All serious students of voice should be encouraged to study this important historical classic.

Mathilde Marchesi:

Marchesi, Mathilde.  Theoretical and Practical Vocal Method.  Reprint ed. with introduction by Philip Miller.  New York: Dover, 1970.
 

Mathilde Marchesi (1826-1913) studied with Garcia II for four years and became thoroughly trained in his techniques, though she calls the middle register, "Medium."  Also like Garcia II she did not have an  exceptional voice and a somewhat limited career.  Her students included:
  • Nellie Melba, 
  • Ilma di Murska, 
  • Emma Eames, and 
  • Emma Calvé.
Marchesi believed the "attitude of the singer should be natural and as easy as possible."  She did not advocate the smile position, believed in diaphragmatic breathing [no corsets], and considered the treatment of the registers as "the touchstone of all singing methods." 

Julius Stockhausen:

Stockhausen, Julius.  Method of Singing. Trans. by Sophie Löwe. London:  Novello, 1884.
 

Julius Stockhausen is best known as a famous singer of lieder.  In addition, two of his students were later teachers of Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau. Stockhausen believed that a beautiful tone was the primary element of the art of singing and that a good voice was only a precondition of artistic singing: 
  • What will always distinguish him from the untaught singer who is lacking in control over his breath, or in flexibility, or in distinctness of pronunciation, is that he perceives at once the meaning of the artistic task before him, and enters into it with full command of the means necessary for its interpretation" (quoted in Coffin, 41). 

Francesco Lamperti:

Lamperti, Francesco (1813-1892).  A Treatise on the Art of Singing. London, 1877.  Rev. & Trans. by J. C. Griffith.  New York: Schirmer, 1980.
 

Lamperti believed there had been a decline in the art of singing because singers were performing onstage before being thoroughly prepared.  Some of his students were:
  • Marietta Alboni, 
  • Maria Waldmann, 
  • Italo Campanini, and 
  • William Shakespeare. [No, not that Shakespeare!] 
He taught that there were three registers for female voices: Chest, Mixed, and Head; and for males, Chest and Mixed.  He advocated singing without forcing and with a full, clear tone.  Interestingly Lamperti did not advocate humming since he believed it fatigued the voice. 

Giovanni Battista Lamperti:

Lamperti, Giovanni Battista (1839-1910).  The Technics of Bel Canto. Trans. by Th. Baker.  New York: Schirmer, 1905.
 

Lamperti's son, Giovanni, was the teacher of the following students:
  • Sembrich, 
  • Schumann-Heink, 
  • Stagno, 
  • Herbert Witherspoon, and 
  • William Earl Brown. 
The younger Lamperti, like other teachers of bel canto, believed that "the true method of singing is in harmony with nature and the rules of health."  Lamperti's methods were written down by his student William Earl Brown.

Lilli Lehmann:

Lehmann, Lilli.  How to Sing.  New York: Macmillan, 1914.
 

Lilli Lehman (1848-1929) sang approximately 170 roles.  She performed at the first Bayreuth Festival and even sang the role of Isolde in Vienna in 1909 at the age of 61.  Her students included:
  • Geraldine Farrar, and 
  • Olive Fremstad. 
She stressed the importance of not holding back the breath and desired to clarify terminology which she felt was confusing.  Lehmann advised students to vocalize on [i], [e], and [u], and thought that [A]  should be abandoned since "the tongue is usually pressed down."  Lehmann believed that the head voice was of greatest importance to all vocal artists.  Some  of her other beliefs are: 
  • Technique is inseparable from art, and 
  • Beauty of tone is the foundation of vocal art.

William Shakespeare:

Shakespeare, William.  The Art of Singing.  New York: Ditson, 1921.
 

Shakespeare was a student of the elder Lamperti.  David Bispham, the first American baritone to achieve international recognition was a student of Lamperti and Shakespeare.  Shakespeare believed that a singer's notes should be "started in fulness [sic] and purity exactly on the pitch intended, the words prolonged, yet sound as natural as the most expressive talking, and every tone conveys the emotion desired by the singer."   Shakespeare further was convinced that in correct singing, "we tire the breath muscles, but experience no sense of fatigue at the throat," and that "on the freedom of the jaw depends the freedom of the larynx."  Shakespeare was also the author of Plain Words on Singing (1924).

William Earl Brown:

Brown, William Earl.  Vocal Wisdom:  Maxims of Giovanni Battista Lamperti, 1931.  Enlarged ed. by Lillian Strongin.  New York: Taplinger, 1957.
 

This little book has become a classic among students of voice.  The "Maxims" were transcribed by Brown when he was a student of Lamperti in Dresden in the 1890s.  Some food for thought:
 
  • The larynx . . . should remain quiescent throughout a song. [The Quiet Throat] (p. 12).
  • The most difficult problem in singing is making a messa di voce.  A tone must be self-starting, self-prolonging, and self-stopping. (p. 13) 
  • To learn to play on the larynx demands training of brain and body until desire and reflex control the process.  Then that which was difficult becomes easy. (p. 14) 
  • I have studied with ten different teachers,' said a student proudly. 'That is nine too many,' exclaimed Lamperti. (p. 22) 
  • Do not 'hold' your tone.  Spin it. (p. 29) 
  • The feeling that your tone is free, borne on its own wings of energy, is one of the greatest delights of life--because you are its creator. (p. 33)

 
Late 19th-century technique
  • called inferior costal and diaphragmatic respiration or pancostal breathing, depended upon drawing the upper abdomen in while inhaling, in order to stabilize the central tendon of the diaphragm.
Some writers recommend against conscious control of breath
  • Douglas Stanley
Other methods
  • German (low abdominal)
  • English (back spreading)

ACOUSTICS OF THE VOCAL TRACT

Comparative Methodologies and National Schools

Strategies, Techniques, and Procedures RESOURCES

A Singer's Notes: Preventing Vocal Nodules:  (Teresa Radomski, M.M., Wake Forest University):  in The Visible Voice (the Newsletter of the Center of Voice Disorders), this article discusses the origin, treatment, and prevention of vocal nodules.

The Complete Guide to the Alexander Technique:  (Robert Rickover - Alexander Technique Nebraska, the Ontario Centre for the Alexander Technique, and Annual Barstow Alexander Technique Institute):  Includes general information on the technique and how to find a teacher,  musicians, medical and scientific research, articles and web sites.  The links section includes categories of health related sites, music sites, internet directories, and miscellaneous topics.

FAQ's Regarding Voice Problems:  (University of Pittsburgh Voice Center):  reflux, singer's nodes, hydration, voice thearpy, smoking, paralyzed vocal cords, and vocal fatigue, and provides charted information on Audible Clues for Potential Vocal Problems and Things Which Can Cause Problems in the Larynx

Gallery of Laryngeal Pathology:  (Center For Voice Disorders of Wake Forest University):  a virtual photo gallery of pathologies in the larynx;  includes links onrelated information to sites on Inflammatory Diseases of the Larynx and lReflux and Voice Disorders, among others.

Guidelines for Singers: Dos and Don'ts:  Preventing Vocal Problems:  ( Clark A. Rosen, M.D. and Thomas Murry, Ph.D., University of Pittsburgh Voice Center):  A helpful and concise list of do's and do not's for singers.

Laryngeal Biomechanics of The Singing Voice:  (James A. Koufman, M.D., Teresa A. Radomski, M.M., Ghazi M. Joharji, M.D, Gregory B. Russell, M.S., and David C. Pillsbury, M.A., Center For Voice Disorders of Wake Forest University):  the purpose of this study was "to determine the "normal" laryngeal biomechanics of healthy singers, and to analyze some of the factors (e.g., gender, vocal training, singing style) that may influence laryngeal biomechanics."

La Scala:  season information, artist photographs and biographies, and extensive historical database.

Medicine In The Vocal Arts:  (James A. Koufman, M.D., Center For Voice Disorders of Wake Forest University):  reprinted from The Visible Voice (the Newsletter of the Center of Voice Disorders), this article "addresses the medical care of vocal professionals who require prompt and effective treatment when a voice problem arises.  The causes of such voice disorders are often multifactorial, and may be both functional and organic in nature. Among the most common causes are upper respiratory infection, gastroesophageal reflux, muscle tension dysphonia, and the vocal abuse/misuse/overuse syndromes."

Metropolitan Opera:  site for one of the world's leading opera companies, includes season schedule and ticket information, opera broadcasts, Met news and history, a Met quiz, and links to the Met Opera Guild (Education at the Met, Opera News, Travel and Tours, and a comprehensive listing of opera companies and links to related opera sites).

Opera America:  "serves and strengthens the field of opera by providing a variety of informational, technical, and administrative resources to the greater opera community. Its fundamental mission is to promote opera as exciting and accessible to individuals from all walks of life."  Includes these categories:  advocacy and awareness programs, information resources and database access, publications, membership, arts education leadership, and other services and benefits.    Operabase:  schedules, reviews, and links.

Operabase:  Opera Schedules, Opera Houses, Opera Festivals, Opera Reviews, Opera Links, in partnership with Opera America (Venue/booking/season details for over 500 opera houses and festivals, Singers Schedules, opera performance search tools, Mouse-sensitive maps, Reviews from leading newspapers, CORPUS: Hundreds of links to opera resources on the Web, and Timelines of composers / works.)

OperaGlass:  (Rick Bogart, Stanford):  "an opera information server on the World Wide Web. Here you can get detailed information, including performance histories, synopses, libretti, discographies, pictures, and more on any of a small but rapidly growing number of operas, plus pointers to many other opera servers."

Opera -L server:  services (list of operas which need a synopsis written and list of operas which have a synopsis written), biographies, and links to other servers.

OperaStuff:  Links include ctaegories:  Opera Resources on the Internet (Opera Singers, Opera Companies,  Opera-Related Links, and Links for Singers) and Listservs and Newsgroups (The Vocalist, Opera-L Listserv and Opera-L Archive,  Operetta-L Listserv, The Usenet newsgroup: rec.music.opera, and Lieder-L Listserv).

Opera Synopsis Project:  (Neil Broderick):  Synopses of numerous operas.

OperaWeb:  award-winning informational site in Italian and English.

Physical Exercise for Singers:   (Bruce Schoonmaker, Furman University Department of Music):   results of a survey of singers and voice teachers on their attitudes toward exercise, the value of physical fitness in quality of life, and how fitness affects singing, and based on anecdotal evidence, interviews with professional singers and teachers of singing, concerning three areas of physical fitness (aerobic exercise - exercises that develops heart-lung strength and endurance;  muscular conditioning - strength training, weight training, calisthenics - non-aerobic exercises for muscle strength and endurance;  neuro-muscular coordination exercises - Yoga, Alexander Technique, Feldenkrais, Tai Chi, Eurythmics - exercises that develop body awareness and the correct relationship of energy and relaxation.  Includes recommendations and suggested exercises).

Singing:  The New Grove:  an online reprint of the article "Singing" by Owen Jander and Henry Pleasants in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, divided into the following sections on the history of singing accesible by hyperlinks:  Introduction, Early History, Medieval and Renaissance Polyphony, 17th and 18th Centuries, 19th Century, 20th Century, Theory and Pedagogy, popular Singing, and Bibliography.

Survivial Tips for Choral Singers:  (Teresa Radomski, M.M., Wake Forest University):  in The Visible Voice (the Newsletter of the Center of Voice Disorders), this article discusses guidelines for vocal health in the choral singer, including issues regarding warm-up exercises, posture, breathing, correct voice classification, articulation, prepartation, overall health and vocal hygiene, and the importance of vocal study.

The Ten Most Common Problems of Singers:  (Teresa Radomski, M.M., Wake Forest University):  in The Visible Voice (the Newsletter of the Center of Voice Disorders), this article discusses ten interrreated probelms encountered in the singing voice involving posture, breath support, attack, timbre, pitch range and register transition, vocal agility, articulation, discipline, vocal hygiene, and artistic confidence.

Vocal Cord "Polyps" ("Reinke's Edema" or "Polypoid Degeneration"):  (James A. Koufman, M.D., Center For Voice Disorders of Wake Forest University):  reprinted from The Visible Voice (the Newsletter of the Center of Voice Disorders), this article describes diagnoses and surgical intervention strategies.

Vocal Fatigue and Dysphonia in the Professional Voice:  Boagart-Bacall Syndrome:  (James A. Koufman, M.D., Center For Voice Disorders of Wake Forest University):  reprinted from The Visible Voice (the Newsletter of the Center of Voice Disorders), this article describes diagnosis of and correction techniques for the syndrome, which includes symtpoms such as low-pitched speaking voice, vocal fatigue, odynophonia, and dysphonia, conditions most common in professional voice users such as singers, actors, and radio or television personalities.

Vocal Nodules:  (James A. Koufman, M.D., Center For Voice Disorders of Wake Forest University):  reprinted from The Visible Voice (the Newsletter of the Center of Voice Disorders), this article addresses controversial issues regarding nodules in children and adults, the natural history and patterns of the condition, when surgical removal of nodules should be considered,  voice therapy, criteria for compliance with therapy and for successful therapy, "irreversible" nodules, and the develop of submucosal cysts.  [Also see Dr. Koufman's correlative article, Editorial:  Vocal Nodules Seldom Require Surgery.]

The Voice Teacher:  (David Jones):  Includes articles on Alan Lindquist: A History of the Technique, The Attack or Onset of Sound, Breath and Support, Breath Management, The Cuperto, History of the Swedish/Italian School of Singing, The Passaggio, Psychological Hints for Teaching Singing, Recuperating Damaged Voices, Shaking Jaw and Tongue, Singing Dramatically without Pushing the Voice, Vennard and Lindquist, Vocal Acoustics in the Theater, and Vocal "Wobble":  The Causes and Solutions."

Warming Up the Voice:  (Teresa Radomski, M.M., Wake Forest University):  in The Visible Voice (the Newsletter of the Center of Voice Disorders), this article discusses discipline and effective warm up sessions as essential elements for optimal performance and artistry in the singing voice.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRPAHY

Blalock, P.D.  "Breath Support,"  The Visible Voice 1:6, April,1992.

Boone D.R. and S.C. McFarlane.  The Voice and Voice Therapy, 4th edition.  Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:  Prentice Hall, 1988.

Bunch, Meribeth.  Dynamics of the Singing Voice.  New York:  Springer-Verlag, 1982.

Koufman,  J.A.  "Evaluation of laryngeal biomechanics by fiberoptic laryngoscopy,"  Diagnosis and Treatment of Voice
Disorders, Gould, W.J., J.S. Rubin, G. Korovin, and R. Sataloff, Editors.  New York:  Igaku-Shoin (in press).

Koufman, J.A.  "The otolaryngologic manifestations of gastroesophageal reflux disease," Laryngoscope 101:(Supplement 53) 1-78, 1991.

Koufman J.A. and  G. Isaacson, Editor.  "Voice Disorders," Otolaryngology Clinics of North America 24:965-1286, October, 1991.

Koufman,  J.A. and P.D. Blalock.  "Functional voice disorders," Otol Clin N A 24:1059, 1991.

Koufman J.A. and P.D. Blalock. "Vocal fatigue and dysphonia in the professional voice user: Bogart-Bacall syndrome,"  Laryngoscope 98:493-498, 1988.

Morrison M.D., H. Nichol, and L.A. Rammage. "Diagnostic criteria in functional dysphonia," Laryngoscope 98:493,1988.

Punt, N.A.  The Singer's and Actor's Throat.  London:  William Heinemann Medical Books Ltd., 1979.

Sataloff R.T. :Professional Voice."  The Science and Art of Clinical Care.  New York:  Raven Press, 1991.

Saunders, W.A.  The Larynx.  Summit, N.J.:  CIBA Pharmaceutical Company, 1964.

Yanagisawa, E, J. Estill,  and L. Manbrino, et al.  "Supraglottic contributions to pitch raising:  Videoendoscopic study with
spectroanalysis,"  Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 100:19,1991.
 

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